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Sixth  Series.  No.  1 1 


January  30,  1915 


3fc arfjprs  (Enlteg?  lulblttt 


AN  OUTLINE 

ON 
THE   HISTORY  OF  COOKERY 


BY 

ANNA  BARROWS  AND  BERTHA  E.  SHAPLEIGH 

ASSISTED  BY 

ANNE  D.  BLITZ 
School  of  Practical  Arts,  Teachers  College,  Columbia  University 


Technical  Education  Bulletin,  No.  28 
PRICE,  28  CENTS 


Published  by 

(EnlUg?,  (Eulumbta  Unittrrattjj 

525  West   120th  Street 
New  York  City 


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Sixth  Scrie.,  No.  1 1  January  30,  1915 


lulbttn 


AN   OUTLINE 

ON 
THE    HISTORY   OF   COOKERY 


BY 

ANNA  BARROWS  AND  BERTHA  E.  SHAPLEIGH 

» i 

ASSISTED  BY 

ANNE  D.  BLITZ 
School  of  Practical  Arts,  Teachers  College,  Columbia  University 


Technical  Education  Bulletin.  F!o.  28 
PRICE,  28  C£NT& 


Published  by 

Sfearlpra  QJullrgr,  (Uulitmbta  Hnmrreity 

525  West   120th  Street 
New  York  City 


4  TECHNICAL    EOT/CATION    BULLETIN 

II.  All  of  these  processes  are  dependent  on  stage  of  advance  in  civil- 
ization. 

III.  All  pass  through  successive  stages,  as  do  all  other  processes,  from 

extremely  simple  to  extremely  complex. 

IV.  There    is    no    possibility    of    hard-and-fast    chronology,    as    we    find 

extremely  complex  stage  of  civilization  existing  side  by  side  with, 
and  exerting  strong  influence  upon,  extremely  simple  stage,  e.g., 
Rome  and  Britain  at  time  of  Caesars;  America  and  Philippines. 

V.  Civilization  proceeds  in  successive  waves.  The  older  cultures,  each 
in  turn,  pass  through  all  periods  of  development  from  savagery 
through  barbarism  to  civilization ;  from  simplicity  and  frugality 
to  luxury,  extravagance,  then  to  decay,  and  to  a  merging  with  a 
neighboring  civilization  in  early  stages  of  development,  e.g., 
Egypt  and  Persia ;  Greece  and  Rome ;  Roman  Empire  and  Franks. 

VI.     Question  of  food  is  inextricably  bound  with   four  other  factors  in 
civilization : 

1.  Climate  and  geographic  limitations. 

2.  Shelter. 

3.  Production  and  control  of  fire. 

4.  Utensils. 

FIRE 

I.    DISCOVERY. 

1.  Legendary.       India — Vedas  ;      Phoenicia;     Greece — Prometheus, 

Hephaestus,    Zeus;    Persia;    Rome — Vulcan,    Vesta;    Scandi- 
navia; Aztecs;  American  Indians. 

2.  Natural  sources. 

a.  Lightning  setting  fire  to  vegetation. 

b.  Sparks  struck  in  working  flints. 

II.    CONTROL. 

Preservation  of  fire  kindled  naturally. 
Artificial  kindling. 

Friction  of  two  pieces  of  dry  wood;  fire-drill  later  develop- 
ment of  this  process. 

b.  Striking  of  flints  to  produce  spark;  quartz  and  pyrites  used 

in  certain  localities. 

c.  Burning  glass — much  later  development. 

III.     FIRE-PLACES. 

1.  Open  fire  on  ground. 

2.  Rude  fire-place  of  stones  piled  together. 

3.  Dug-out  pit  lined  with  stones. 

4.  Fire-places   in  caves;   near  opening,   with  outlet  for  smoke  and 

draft. 


AN  OUTLINE  ON  THE  HISTORY  OF  COOKERY  5 

5.  Artificial  containers,   as   early   forms   of   braziers;    examples   in 

Egyptian  paintings,  in  Persian  reliefs,  descriptions  in  Homeric 
poems ;  used  in  China  and  Orient  to-day. 

6.  Artificial  structure,  of  stones  fitted  carefully  together,  with  chim- 

ney for  draft.     All  architecture  begins  with  shelter  of  fire 
from  wind  and  rain. 

TOOLS  AND  UTENSILS 

All  tools  imitations  of  forms  found  in  nature — as  bowl,  from  hollow 
stone;  knife  from  flint  splinter;  spoon  from  shell;  forked  instrument 
from  forked  stick,  or  human  hand,  or  claw  of  bird ;  hammer  from  human 
fist. 

I.  CONTAINERS  :  Hollowed  stone,  natural  or  artificial ;  hollowed  wood, 
stumps,  ends  of  logs ;  gourds  for  dippers ;  shells  for  ladles  or 
spoons;  skin  bottles  and  jars;  nets  and  baskets  of  fibre  and  reed; 
baskets  daubed  with  clay  for  fire-proofing;  clay  pottery;  metal 
bowls  and  vessels. 

II.  BREAKERS  :  Rude  natural  core  of  stone,  fitting  hand,  used  as  mallet ; 
grooved  to  fit  handle  of  wood  or  stone;  chipped  on  edge  for 
cutting  and  scraping;  knife  with  handle;  spear;  arrow-head. 

III.  WEAPONS  :  Mallet ;  knife  ;  adze  ;  spear  and  shield  ;  bow  and  arrow. 

IV.  DOMESTIC  TOOLS  :   Knife ;   scraper ;   hand-plow ;   mortar  and  pestle ; 

rolling  mill ;  quern  or  rotary  mill ;  washboard  and  rubber ;  spoons 
of  shell;  forks.  Bone  and  ivory  needles  and  pins,  combs,  hair- 
pins, files,  small  jars,  ornaments  of  all  kinds. 


PREHISTORIC  TIMES 

I.     PREHISTORIC  MAN. 

1.  Remains  of  man  found  in  "River-drift"  period  in  England  and  on 

continent  indicate  no  use  of  tools,  nor  knowledge  of  fire. 
Earlier  stage  of  development  than  found  in  any  known  sav- 
ages in  historic  times. 

2.  EARLY    STONE- AGE    MAN     (Paleolithic).      To    this    age    belong 

"kitchen-middens"  of  Denmark,  Scandinavia,  many  cave- 
remains  of  France,  Spain,  and  England.  Name  derived  from 
rude  stone  implements. 

a.  Fire  known  and  under  partial  control — could  be  preserved 

when  naturally  kindled. 

b.  Food.    Mainly  vegetable;  animals  occasionally  slain  included 

shell-fish,  insects,  etc.  Most  food  eaten  raw.  No  domes- 
ticated animals  save  dog;  no  cultivated  plants.  Food 
supply  wholly  that  of  nature. 


O  TECHNICAL    EDUCATION    BULLETIN 

c.  Industries.  Fishing,  some  hunting,  making  of  utensils  of  stone 
and  bone ;  rude  flaked  flints  chipped  to  shape,  never  ground 
or  polished ;  some  spirited  drawings  as  decorations  on 
walls  of  cave-shelters  and  on  implements. 

3.  LATE  STONE- AGE  MAN    (Neolithic).     To  this  period  belong  the 

numerous  burial  monuments,  houses,  barrows,  graves,  mono- 
liths, so  common  throughout  the  world.  The  remains  of  the 
pile-dwellings,  or  lake-dwellings,  of  Switzerland,  Ireland,  etc., 
probably  belong  to  this  period. 

a.  Fire    under    pretty    complete    control.      Can    be    artificially 

kindled  as  well  as  controlled.  Used  not  only  for  warmth, 
but  for  cooking  food. 

b.  Food,    both    vegetable    and    animal,    prepared    by    cooking; 

obtained  by  hunting,  fishing,  stock-breeding  and  tillage. 
Nearly  all  food-animals  domesticated,  many  grains,  vege- 
tables and  fruits  cultivated. 

c.  Industries :     Spinning,    weaving,    mining,    agriculture,    stock- 

raising,  making  of  polished  stone  implements  of  many 
types,  making  of  pottery,  stone-cutting  on  large  scale. 

4.  BRONZE  OR  METAL-AGE  MAN.     This  period  grows  out  of  the  pre- 

ceding so  gradually  that  everywhere  there  is  evidence  of 
overlapping.  With  the  Iron-Age,  which  is  the  outgrowth  of 
the  Bronze-Age,  we  come  to  historic  times.  This  was  the 
period  of  development  of  the  Homeric  heroes. 

II.     STAGES  OF  CIVILIZATION. 

There  are   three   recognized   steps   in   development   from   rudest   sav- 
agery to  civilization  ;  these  are  : 

1.  SAVAGERY. 

a.  Lowest  stage :  food  consists  of  fruit,  roots,  nuts ;  since  there 

is  no  knowledge  of  fire  or  use  of  artificially  produced 
tools,  it  is  all  eaten  raw. 

b.  Middle  stage :  in  addition  to  above,  food  is  shellfish,  including 

crabs,  molluscs;  sea  slugs;  fish;  wild  animals  caught  in 
chase.  Fire  is  known  and  used.  Weapons  are  invented. 

c.  Higher  stage :  invention  of  bow  and  arrow  makes  animal  food 

staple ;  hunting  normal  occupation.  Control  of  food  pro- 
duction, storage  of  surplus  in  settled  places,  make  supply 
less  uncertain.  Industries  are  making  of  wooden  and 
stone  vessels,  hand-weaving  of  rough  fibres  for  fishing 
nets,  reed  baskets  for  cookery,  but  as  yet  no  making  of 
pottery. 

2.  BARBARISM.      Marked    from   preceding   by    invention   of   pottery. 

Discovery  at  first  probably  accidental,  through  action  of  heat 
on  mud  or  clay  daubed  on  outside  of  basket  in  cooking,  or 
through  coating  food  with  clay  (as  fish  or  bird)  before 
baking  in  ashes. 


AN  OUTLINE  ON  THE  HISTORY  OF  COOKERY  7 

a.  Early   stage:    use   of   pottery,   domestication  of   animals   and 

first  cultivation  of  cereals. 

b.  Middle  stage :  cultivation  and  irrigation  of  plants  and  cereals, 

taming  and  breeding  of  animals  for  both  flesh  and  milk; 
life  of  herdsman  the  common  one.  Use  of  bronze  metal 
for  tools  and  for  ornament. 

c.  Higher  stage :   begins  with  melting  of  iron-ore.     Iron  plow, 

drawn  by  animals,  revolutionizes  production  of  vegetable 
foods ;  ship-building  widens  intercourse  and  equalizes  dis- 
tribution of  food.  This  is  the  stage  reached  by  the 
Egyptians  at  the  time  of  their  earliest  records,  by  the 
Greeks  in  the  Homeric  legends,  by  the  Germans  as  recorded 
by  Tacitus,  and  by  the  Incas  at  the  time  of  the  conquest 
of  Peru.  From  this  stage  barbarism  merges  into  civil- 
ization. 

III.     FOOD.     STAGF.S  OF  COOKERY. 

1.  Stages  of  preparation  of  cereals. 

a.  Eaten  raw  and  whole. 

b.  Ground  into  meal,  eaten  raw  or  dried  in  sun. 

c.  Parched  before  open  blaze. 

d.  Roasted  or  baked  in  pits  with  heated  stones. 

e.  As  mush  or  gruel. 

f.  As  thin  griddle  cakes  baked  on  hot  surface. 

g.  Boiled    in    a    pot    (after    invention    of    pottery),    at    first    by 

dropping  red  hot  stones  into  the  water,  later  by  placing 
pot  itself  directly  over  flame. 

2.  Stages  of  preparation  of  meats.     Little  meat  eaten  until  use  of 

fire  is  well  established. 

a.  Carcass  thrown  directly  on  fire. 

b.  Meat  roasted  on  stick  over  flame  of  fire;  from  this  spit  was 

developed. 

c.  Buried  in  leaves  in  embers. 

d.  Daubed  in  mud  or  clay,  buried  in  embers. 

e.  Boiled   in   skin  of  animal  made   into   rude  vessel,  or  simply 

used  to  line  cavity  in  rock  or  earth.  Cooking  by  means 
of  stones  heated  red-hot  and  dropped  into  water. 

f.  Pot   of   soapstone   or   steatite,   which    could  be   propped   on 

smaller  stones  and  have  fire  directly  beneath.  From  this, 
legs  of  pots  were  developed. 

g.  Pottery  vessels,  set  directly  on  fire. 

3.  Food  supply  of  uncivilized  man. 

a.  Vegetable:  corn,  rice,  cereals,  maize,  acorns,  nuts,  dates,  figs, 
cocoanuts,  lichens,  wild  celery,  service  berry,  olive,  grape, 
apple,  cherry,  squash  and  potato  in  America,  sunflower 
seed,  chili. 


5  TECHNICAL    EDUCATION    BULLETIN 

b.  Animal:  fish,  both  fresh  and  salt;  all  shellfish,  oysters  and 
mussels  especially;  birds,  both  game  and  fowl;  animals, 
domesticated  and  wild.  From  these,  milk  products,  espec- 
ially cheese  and  butter. 

IV.     FOLKLORE. 

1.  Legends  of  fire  in  every  mythology:   Persian,   Hindoo,  Chinese, 

Greek,  Scandinavian,  American  Indian. 

2.  Taboos  of  foods  and  ways  of  preparation,  usually  embodied  in 

religious  practices,  i.e.,  Mosaic  code;  Code  of  Manu;  Greek 
rites. 

3.  Traditions  of   divine  gifts   of   foods :    Asia,   rice ;   Greece,  olive ; 

America,  maize;  etc. 

REFERENCES  :  Aesop's  Fables ;  Apocrypha ;  Arabian  Nights  Entertain- 
ment; Confucius;  Herodotus;  Koran;  Mythology  of  Greeks,  Romans, 
Scandinavians  ;  Talmud ;  Vedas. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

ABBOTT,  CHAS.  C Primitive  Industry,  1881 

AVEBURY,  LORD Prehistoric  Times,  1913  (7th  Ed.) 

BARCLAY,  ISABELLA The  Way  the  World  Went  Then,  1898 

BOAS,  FRANZ The  Mind  of  Primitive  Man 

DOPP,  KATHERINE The  Early  Cave-Man,  1904 

DOPP,  KATHERINE Later  Cave-Men,  1906 

DOPP,  KATHERINE The  Tree-Dwellers,   1903 

ENCYCLOPEDIA  BRITANNICA  ARTICLES Archeology,  Cookery,  Fire,  Food 

ENGELS,  FREDERICK Origin  of  the  Family,  Chap  I,  1902 

JOLY,  NICHOLAS Man  Before  Metals,  1883 

KEANE,  A.  H Ethnology,  1896 

KELLER,  DR.  FERDINAND.  .The  Lake  Dwellers,  2  vols.,  plates  in  Vol.  II,  1878 

LINEHAN,  RAY  S Habitations  of  Man,  1894 

MASON,  O.  T Origin  of  Inventions,  1895 

MASON,  O.  T Woman's  Share  in  Primitive  Culture,  1894 

MUNRO Ancient   Scottish   Lake-Dwellers 

MUNRO Lake-Dwellings  of  Europe 

REPORTS American  Bureau  of  Ethnology,  1895 

STARR,  FREDERICK Some  First  Steps  in  Human  Progress 

TAYLOR,  ISAAC Origin  of  the  Aryans,  1829 

TYLER,  E.  B Anthropology,  1904 

TYLER,  E.  B Primitive  Culture,  Vol.  I,  1888 

WOOD-MARTIN Lake-Dwellers  of  Ireland 


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IO  TECHNICAL    EDUCATION    BULLETIN 

ANCIENT  TIMES 

5000  B.C.  tO  476  A.D. 

I.     Knowledge  of  food  sources  and  processes  gained  through : 

1.  Contemporary  records,  in  literature,  sculpture,  and  pictures. 

2.  Information  as  to  climate,  soil,  and  geographical  conditions. 

3.  Observation  of  conditions  in  those  localities  to-day,  especially  in 

oriental  countries,  where  life  has  changed  but  little  with  the 
passing  centuries. 

II.  Part  food  plays  in  literature  of  past. 

1.  Casual  references  in  poems,  plays,  histories. 

2.  Religious  and  legal  restrictions  and  prescriptions  of  usages ;  as  in 

Mosaic  law. 

3.  Literature  of  food  itself,  as  in  Greek  and  Roman  times,  poems 

celebrating  rare  foods  or  great  feasts. 

III.     Records  preserved  in  history  almost  wholly  those  of  ruling  or  noble 
class. 

1.  In    pictorial    representation,    monuments,    etc.,    because    only    the 

wealthy  could  afford  these. 

2.  In  literature,  because  only  the  great  were  thought  worthy  of  cele- 

bration and  representation. 

3.  Foods  of  common  people  known  only  by  contemptuous  reference, 

or  mentioned  for  sake  of  contrast,  i.e.,  account  of  swine-herd's 
fare  in  Odyssey. 

EGYPT 

I.  NATURAL  RESOURCES. 

1.  Vegetable. 

a.  Grain,  especially  wheat,  barley,  etc. 

b.  Lentils,  onions,  melons,  hops,  cabbage,  leeks,  cucumbers,  garlic. 

c.  Fruits,  especially  grapes — monkeys  used  to  gather  them ;  date 

palm,  cocoanut  palm. 

2.  Animal. 

a.  Fish  of  all  kinds — cats  trained  to  catch  and  retrieve  them. 

b.  Wild  animals,  antelope,  deer,  boar,  crocodile. 

c.  Domesticated  and  milk-giving  animals,  beeves,  goats,  sheep, 

pigs. 

d.  Birds   and    fowl;    Egyptians   were   the   first  people   to   hatch 

eggs  artificially ;  cats  used  to  retrieve  game  birds. 

II.  IMPORTATION  BY  TRADE. 

a.  Fruits. 

b.  Gums  and  spices. 

III.  COOKERY. 

T.     Methods  shown  by  wall  paintings  in  tombs. 


AN  OUTLINE  ON  THE  HISTORY  OF  COOKERY  II 

a.  Process  of  bread  making — grinding  grain,  kneading  dough  in 

trough  with  feet,  forming  into  cakes  or  loaves,  baking 
before  brazier,  storing  of  finished  product.  Public 
bakeries. 

b.  Brewing. 

c.  Plowing. 

d.  Harvesting. 

e.  Milking. 

f.  Salting  and  preserving  game. 

g.  Preparing  entire  meal — plucking  geese,  cutting  and  preparing 

joints  of  veal  and  mutton,   roasting  goose  on  spit  over 

flame  in  fire-pot,  stewing  meat,  carving, 
h.     Preparing  banquet  hall, 
i.     Serving    banquet,    while    wrestlers,    tumblers,     fencers    and 

musicians  entertain  guests. 

2.  Utensils  for  preparation  and  cookery  of  food  preserved  to-day. 

3.  Elaborate  accounts  of  Egyptian  fare  in  Bible  and  in  Greek  writ- 

ings— Herodotus.    * 

a.  Method  of  preparing  veal. 

b.  Richness  of  country's  food  supply — "flesh  pots  of  Egypt." 

c.  Contrast  with  poor  fare  in  desert. 

4.  Egyptian  cookery  to-day. 

a.  Food  supply  much  the  same. 

b.  Methods  of  preparation  traditional. 

JUDEA. 

COOKERY  OF  BIBLK. 

1.  In  the  beginning,  largely  vegetable. 

2.  Abel's  offering  of  lamb.     Gen.  IV :  4. 

3.  Leviticus — clean  and  unclean  foods — laws. 

4.  Foods  mentioned  in  Bible. 

a.  Abraham  offers  unleavened  bread  to  the  angel. 

b.  Esau — mess  of  pottage — lentils,  very  savory — lentils  partaken 

of  in  time  of  mourning. 

c.  Isaac  gives  blessing  to  Jacob   for  kid  dressed  as  venison — 

indicating  that  venison  was  highly  regarded. 

d.  Milk  and  honey— Land  of  Canaan— delicacies — "seethed  milk," 

butter — song  of  Deborah,  "butter  in  a  lordly  dish." 

e.  Bread — leavened  and  unleavened;  leaven  dates  from  earliest 

use  of  meal,  back  to  times  of  savagery — found  among 
most  primitive  peoples. 

f.  Locusts. 

g.  Food  of  captivity  in  Egypt — 

(1)  Corn  (6)     Garlic 

(2)  Melons  (7)     Fish 


12  TECHNICAL    EDUCATION    BULLETIN 

(3)  Cucumbers  (8)     Pork 

(4)  Leeks  (9)     Veal  (calf,  tender  and  good) 

(5)  Onions  (10)  Cabbage 
h.     Wine — grapes. 

i.  Olives — fruit  of  trees, 

j.  Quail — Exodus. 

k.  Pulse. 

1.  Manna — lichen,  still  known  as  food  in  that  locality. 
5.    Feasts  of  Bible: 

a.  Nebuchadnezzar. 

b.  Belshazzar. 

c.  Esther. 

d.  Solomon. 

ASSYRIA  AND  BABYLONIA. 

I.    CHARACTER  OF  COUNTRVT. 

1.  Like  Egypt,   rich   river   valley,    fertile   soil,   warm   climate,   great 

natural  resources. 

2.  Favored  for  commerce  and  intercourse  with  other  nations,  con- 

stant exchange  of  commodities,  including  foodstuffs;  con- 
stant cultivation  of  new  ways  of  using  native  materials. 

II.     NATURAL  RESOURCES,  and  those  gained  by  exchange. 

1.  Vegetable.     Much   the   same   as    Egypt;   grains    staple   product; 

many  fruits  and  vegetables. 

2.  Animal. 

a.  Fish  and  shell-fish. 

b.  Wild  game. 

c.  Domesticated  animals. 

III.    PREPARATION. 

1.  Very  elaborate — mention  of  great  feasts  of  Ahasuerus,  of  Nebu- 

chadnezzar, Daniel  at  Belshazzar's  feast. 

2.  Great  diversity  of  service,  shown  by  utensils  of  gold  and  silver, 

richly  wrought  and  skillfully  shaped — spoons  and  forks  found 
in  ruins. 

3.  Legal  enactments — no  cooking  on  Sabbath,  illegal  to  take  medi- 

cine on  that  day;  renting  of  land  for  market  gardening,  rent 
to  be  one-third  of  produce ;  slave  labor  on  farms,  in  vineyards. 

4.  Pictures  of  hunting  of  deer,  goat,  lion,  boar,  many  wild  birds; 

of  plowing  and  cultivating  land;  of  care  of  vineyards  and 
making  of  wine;  of  kitchen  processes;  of  banqueting;  pre- 
served in  clay  bricks  and  cylinders  of  Ninevah  and  Babylon. 

PERSIA. 

Rise    of    Persia    contemporary    with    Greece.    Conquered    Babylonia, 
reigned  as  mistress  of  East  till  conquered  in  5th  century  B.  c.  by  Greece. 


AN  OUTLINE  ON  THE  HISTORY  OF  COOKERY  13 

I.\  Wonderfully    fruitful    country— reputed    seat    of    Garden    of    Eden. 
N       Climate  semi-tropical,  many  fruit-trees  native  to  soil. 

II.     Early  history  shows  greatest  moderation  and  simplicity  of  living. 

1.  Food  largely  vegetable,  fruits  abounding,  rice  a  staple. 

2.  Flesh  food  of  secondary  importance  in  diet  to  milk  and  cheese, 

which  form  a  large  part  of  food  of  people. 

3.  Preparation  marked  by  simplicity,  as  shown  both  by  records  and 

by  simplicity  of  utensils.     Little  variety  in  kinds  of  dishes 
and  utensils,  though  there  is  elaborate  ornamentation. 

4.  Contrast   with    food-habits   of   Egypt   and   Babylonia,   and  their 

luxuries,  shown  in  story  of  Ochus  (Table  Traits,  p.  306). 

III.  Later,  Persian  living  gradually  becomes  more  luxurious,  as  shown  by 

1.  Records  of  great  feasts — as  feast  of  Ahasuerus  in  Book  of  Esther. 

2.  Remains  of  great  banquet  halls,  as  that  of  Darius  at  Persepolis, 

Cyrus  at  Susa. 

3.  Sculptured  records  of  table-scenes. 

IV.  Influence  of  foreign  trade  upon  food  of  Persia, 
r.     Introduction  of  new  foods. 

a.  Melon  from  India. 

b.  Plums  and  cherries  from  Africa. 

c.  Spices  and  condiments  from  Arabia. 

2.     More    elaborate    methods    of    cookery,    by    contact    with    highly 
developed  Egyptian  and  Babylonian  cookery. 

V.  Persian  luxury,  unlike  that  of  Greece,  Rome,  and  barbarian  Europe, 
consisted  in  skill  of  preparation  and  delicacy  of  flavor  rather 
than  in  profusion  of  viands  and  magnificence  of  mere  bulk. 

VI.  With  conquest  by  Greece,  Persian  wealth  declines,  civilization  decays. 
Country  to-day  differs  little  in  food-stuffs  and  food-preparation 
from  Persia  of  600  B.  c. 


GREECE. 

I.     HOMERIC   TIMES.     Stage   of   civilization,   higher   barbarism — life   of 
men,  husbandry,  cattle-raising,  fighting;   life  of  women,  care  of 
household,  spinning  and  weaving,  care,  storage  and  preparation  of 
food. 
i.     Flesh  food. 

a.  Cattle,  sheep,  goats,  swine. 

b.  Roasted  on  spits  over  flame  of  fire — mention  of  spits  large 

enough  to  support  carcass  of  an  ox,  turned  by  hand. 

c.  Fat  of  animals  and  marrow  of  bones  esteemed  delicacies. 

d.  Fish  held   in  contempt,   eaten   only  when  nothing  else  was 

obtainable ;  fishing  by  nets,  harpoons,  hooks  mentioned. 


14  TECHNICAL    EDUCATION    BULLETIN 

e.    Homeric  heroes  did  their  own  cooking — skill  of   several  in 
special  fields  mentioned. 

2.  Vegetables  and  grains. 

a.  Bread    stuffs — barley,   meal,    and    wheaten    flour,    baked   into 

loaves,  without  leaven. 

b.  Fruits — grapes,  figs. 

3.  Beverages. 

a.  Wine  only  drink,  mixed  with  water. 

b.  Milk  not  esteemed — Polyphemus,  type  of  savage,  only  user. 

c.  Honey  sometimes  mixed  with  wine  for  sweetening. 

4.  Butter  unknown,  cheese  used  freely,  esteemed  highly. 

5.  Three  meals  in  Homer : 

a.  Breakfast. 

b.  Dinner — hot  meal,  served  in  middle  of  day. 

c.  Supper — light,  simple  repast. 

6.  Feasts   described   at  great   length,   with   well-defined   ceremonial 

observances : 

a.  Feast  at  funeral  of  Patroclus. 

b.  Provisioning  of  boat  for  Telemachus. 

c.  Provisioning  of  raft  by  Calypso. 

d.  Feast  at  home  of  Nestor. 

e.  Feast  at  home  of  Menelaus. 

f.  Feast  at  home  of  Alcinous. 

g.  Feast  at  home  of  Odysseus, 
h.  Meal  at  swineherd's  hut. 

II.     POST-HOMERIC  PERIOD,  three  main  centres: 

1.  Sparta,  noted  for  frugality. 

a.  Public    table    for    men ;    common    contributions    to    general 

stock;  levy  of  certain  amount  per  diem. 

b.  Light  meat  diet ;   staples,  barley   meal,   cheese,   black  broth, 

dried  figs,  and  dates;  moderate  use  of  wine. 

2.  Athens,   frugal  also — allowance  of  about  fifty  cents  a  day   for 

four  adults  considered  extravagant. 

a.  Meat,  usually  obtained   from  sacrifices  or  public   festivities. 

Whole  meat  diet  regarded  as  a  hardship.  Sausage  and 
fish  esteemed. 

b.  Vegetables,  cereals,   fruits  cultivated  extensively — beans  and 

peas,  spinach,  cabbage,  lettuce,  radishes,  onions,  leeks, 
turnips ;  pease  porridge  staple  in  diet.  Figs,  olives,  raisin 
and  wine  grapes,  apples,  pears,  quinces,  pomegranates; 
nuts — walnuts,  chestnuts,  almonds;  grain — wheat,  millet, 
barley,  spelt;  leavened  bread  used  freely.  Athenians 
prided  themselves  on  fancy  baking,  sesame  and  poppy 
seeds  used  as  flavor.  Standard  weights  of  loaves.  Little 
cake  used.  Eggs  sparingly  used.  Honey  for  sweetening 
entirely. 


AN  OUTLINE  ON  THE  HISTORY  OF  COOKERY  15 

c.  Wine   only  beverage,   many   varieties.     Always    mixed   with 

water,    usually    "half    and    half."      Over-indulgence    con- 
demned. 

d.  Cheese  and  oil  substitutes  for  butter  in  cooking;  smoked  and 

dried    fish    used    as    relish;    oysters    considered    delicacy. 

Word  "ostracise"  derived  from  this. 

3.  Ionia,  home  of  luxurious  livers.  Sybaris  noted  for  its  refine- 
ments and  love  of  dainty  cookery.  Sumptuary  laws  enacted 
to  check  these  extravagances.  Indulgence  in  wine  freer  than 
in  Sparta  and  Athens. 

III.  LATER    PERIOD — height   of   Athenian    supremacy.     Marked   by   great 

luxury  and  profusion  of  food. 

1.  Seven  sages  of  kitchen,  each  famed  for  production  of  some  one 

dish  or  sauce. 

2.  470  B.C.     Cooking  society  awarded  prize  to  one  who  produced 

most  excellent  dish. 

3.  Serious  study  of  dietetics  as  well  as  art  of  cookery. 

4.  Rarity  of  food  and  difficulty  of  securing  it  more  considered  than 

flavor  of  article  itself;  period  of  importation  from  other  and 
distant  countries. 

5.  Influence    of    Egypt    and    Babylonia.      Song-birds,    game-birds, 

domestic  fowl  highly  esteemed,  also  fish,  especially  deep-sea 
fish. 

6.  Cultivation  of  fruit-trees — study  of  horticulture,  specialization  in 

grafting  fruits.     Many  kinds  of  wine  made;  delicate  flavor 
and  heady  quality  appreciated. 

IV.  GREEK  SERVICE  AT  TABLE. 

1.  Homeric  times. 

a.  Rude  board  on  trestles. 

b.  Thronos,  or  chair  with  back  and  arms,  for  important  persons, 

stools  for  common  people. 

c.  Many  vessels,  especially  for  drink,  but  no  knives  or  forks  at 

table.     Meat  cooked  so  that  it  fell  to  pieces,  or  else  cut 
by  steward  as  it  was  passed. 

d.  Ceremonial  observances,  as  libation,  honoring  of  guest,  show- 

ing appreciation  of  song  or  story  by  gift  of  choice  morsels, 
etc. 

2.  Later  times. 

a.  Elaborate  tables,  marble,  wood,  bronze,  inlay,  etc. 

b.  Guests  reclined  on  couches,  piled  with  cushions;  used  right 

hand  only  in  eating. 

c.  No  forks,  fingers  used  entirely.    Forks  used  only  for  kitchen 

serving. 

d.  Cup-bearer   and   attendants   kept   wine   cups   filled.     Tables 

changed  at  end  of  courses. 


l6  TECHNICAL    EDUCATION    BULLETIN 

e.  Women   of    family  not   present   at    feasts;    music,   juggling, 

dancing  by  hired  female  entertainers. 

f.  Symposia  at  end  of  meal,  learned  or  polite  discussions  calling 

out  wit  and  thought  of  company. 

ROME. 

I.  EARLY  HISTORY.  Living  frugal,  like  that  of  early  Greeks ;  food  pro- 
ducts and  methods  of  preparation  very  similar.  Imitated  Greeks 
•  in  all  culinary  matters.  National  dish,  porridge. 

II.     LATER  TIMES — Republic. 

1.  Fish,  red  mullet  favorite;  shellfish,  oysters  especially.     Game  of 

all  kinds,  birds  especially.  Domesticated  animals,  pork  highly 
prized ;  beef  and  mutton  used ;  fowl  bred  extensively.  Romans 
first  to  caponize  cocks.  Geese  fattened  and  stuffed,  livers 
considered  great  delicacy. 

2.  Vegetables — cabbage,    lentils,   beans,    peas,    carrots,    sorrel,   pars- 

ley, truffles,  mushrooms,  asparagus;  fruits — apples  favorite, 
plums,  cherries,  pears,  nuts  of  many  kinds,  olives,  grapes 
for  raisins  and  for  wine. 

3.  Beverages — beer  and  malt  liquors  used  among  common  people, 

wine  also  common  beverage ;  honey  used  in  certain  fermented 
drinks. 

III.  EMPIRE — luxury  and  degeneracy.     Feasts  of  this  time  marked  by : 

1.  A  profusion  of  viands,  number  of  articles  served  rather  than 

excellence  the  criterion — as  Feasts  of  Heliogabalus,  Nero, 
Claudius,  Vitellius. 

2.  Articles  brought  from  great  distances  and  noted  for  their  rarity 

and  costliness.    See  Good  Cheer,  p.  57. 

3.  Gluttony  rather  than  epicureanism  the  custom  of  the  time. 

IV.  TABLE  SERVICE — like  that  of  the  Greeks — reclined  on  couches  around 

table.    Much  the  same  manner  of  serving  and  eating  as  in  later 
Athenian  days.     Roman  culture  borrowed  bodily  from  Greek. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 
BIBLE. 
TRANSLATIONS    from    Iliad,    Odyssey,   Vergil,    Horace,    Herodotus,   Livy, 

Tacitus,   Plutarch,   Plato,  Apicius,  Athenaeus,   Martial,   Petronius 

Arbiter,  Ovid. 

BLUMNER,  H Home  Life  of  Ancient  Greeks,  1893 

BOTSFORD,  G.  W History  of  Ancient  World,  1911 

EBERS,  GEORGE Egyptian  Princess,  1883 

ERMAN Life  in  Ancient  Egypt,  p.  188-193,  1894 

FERRERO,  G Women  of  the  Caesars,  1911 

GULICK,  C.  B Life  of  the  Ancient  Greeks,  Ch.  X-XI,  1902 


AN  OUTLINE  ON  THE  HISTORY  OF  COOKERY 


KA 


HACKWOOD,  F.  W  ......................................  Good  Cheer,  1911 

KUHL-ROMER  .....................  Home  Life  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans 

LINEHAN,  RAY  ................................  Habitations  of  Man,  1894 

MAHAFFY,  J.  P  ...........................  ....  Social  Life  of  Greece,  1890 

MASPERO,  G.  C, 

Life  in  Ancient  Egypt  and  Assyria,  Ch.  II,  VI,  XII,  XIV,  1892 
REICH,  EMIL  .........................  Woman  Throughout  the  Ages,  1908 

ST.  JOHN,  M.  J.  H  .........  Manners  and  Customs  of  Ancient  Greece,  1842 

SEYMOUR,  T.  D....  Homeric  Viands   (In  Proceedings  of  American  Philo- 

logical Ass'n,  Vol.  XXX,  1899). 
WILKINSON,  SIR  JOHN  G., 

Manners  and  Customs  of  the  Ancient  Egyptians,  1878 


DATES  IN  MEDIEVAL  HISTORY 


EASTERN  EMPIRE 


A.D. 
324 


375 


Constantino  the 
Great 

Seat  of  empire  re- 
moved from  .Rome 
to  Constantinople 

Invasion    of 
Visigoths 

Birth    of   Moham- 
med 


WESTERN  EMPIRF 
A.D. 


410 


476 


Sack    of    Rome 
Alaric 


by 


Fall  of  Rome  be-  i 
fore  Germanic  in-  I 
vaders 


622       Hejira 


632 


732 


1050     Jerusalem  in  hands 
of  Mohammedans 


Spread    of    Moham- 
medan power 

480-752     Merovingian 
Kingdom   of 
Franks,   begun 
under    Clovis,   pre- 
vails in  west 

Battle   of  Tours 
Mohammedans 
driven  south  of 
Pyrenees 

732 
768 

Son 

Charles  Martel  de- 
feats  Mohamme- 
dans 

Charlemagne 
Charlemagne 

1096 
1244 


founds    Holy 
Roman    Empire 

First    Crusade 
End    of    Crusades 


1453 


Fall    of    Constanti- 
nople 


1347     The   Black   Death 
1300-1400     Renaissance 

M29-31     Joan  of  Arc 

1461-1483       Louis  XI 

and  unification  of 
France 

1492     Voyage  of 
Columbus 


B.C. 

55 


A.D. 
500 


ENGLAND 


Caesar's   conquest 
of  Brittain 


England  under 
Saxon  rule 


871-901     Alfred  the 

Great 
1066     Norman  Conquest 

1215     Magna  Charta 

I338-I4S3     Hundred 
Years'  War 

1340-1400     Chaucer 
1455-85     War  of  Roses 


2O  TECHNICAL    EDUCATION    BULLETIN 

2.  Elaborated  dishes  and  utensils;  in  Italy,  table-fork  invented. 

3.  Elaborated   cookery   itself,  and   rarity  and   costliness  of  viands 

sought  for. 

ENGLAND  TO  1500 

I.  SAXON  ENGLAND. 

1.  Foods. 

a.  Meats  and  fish  staple  in  diet,  huge  quantities  being  consumed. 

Customary  to  roast  beeves  whole. 

b.  Fowl  esteemed  and  raised  for  table;  wild   fowl  considered 

delicacies. 

c.  Few  vegetables  known;  cereals   (barley,  corn,  rarely  wheat) 

ground  for  bread ;  acorns  commonly  used  as  meal  by  poor. 

d.  Liquor  distilled  from  grain  the  common  drink,  even  among 

rulers.    Mead,  made  from  honey,  favorite  drink. 

2.  Table  customs. 

a.  Huge  feasts,  to  celebrate  battles  or  as  signs  of  good  will, 

frequent  occurrences. 

b.  Men  and  women  sat  at  table  together,  ranged  according  to 

rank,  all  sitting  at  same  board. 

c.  Dishes  and  utensils  rude — cups  of  horn,  dishes  of  wood,  meat 

served  on  spits  on  which  it  was  roasted;  no  forks,  but 
each  guest  brought  his  own  knife.  Table  cloths  used,  but 
not  napkins. 

d.  Heavy  drinking  the  rule.     Singing  and  professional  jesting 

the  entertainment.  The  bard  improvised  verses  in  honor 
of  giver  of  feast. 

3.  Architecture. 

a.  Dining  hall  largest  room  in  the  one-story  structure.     Table 

simply  boards  laid  on  trestles,  removable  when  not  in  use. 
Guests  sat  on  benches  without  backs. 

b.  Kitchen  early  separated  from  dining  hall,  built  around  chim- 

ney, where  all  cooking  was  done  before  open  fire. 

^*- "  •* 

II.  NORMAN  ENGLAND. 

i.    Foods. 

a.  Greater  refinement  at  once  came  in  with  the  more  cultured 

Normans.  Cookery  for  first  time  in  England  regarded  as 
an  art.  Flavor  and  delicacy  more  esteemed  than  mere 
quantity,  as  among  Saxons.  With  this  period  comes 
influence  of  Crusades,  with  its  importation  of  Eastern 
fruits,  as  citron,  cloves,  lemons,  oranges,  figs,  and  dates, 
and  its  spices  for  preserving  meats  through  winter. 
Norman  nobles  brought  their  own  stewards  and  cooks, 
and  these  positions  became  posts  of  honor  in  household. 

b.  Drinks.    Upper  classes  used  wines  almost  entirely;  despised 

beer,  ale  and  mead,  which  continued  to  be  beverages  of 


f 


AN  OUTLINE  ON  THE  HISTORY  OF  COOKERY  21 

common    people.      Heavy    drinking    still    customary    with) 
both  classes.    Cider  popular  beverage. 

c.     Vegetable  foods  much  more  common  than  in  Saxon  period. 
See  Good  Cheer,  p.  8sc. 

2.  Architecture. 

a.  Dining  hall.     Gothic  architecture,  with  high  arched  roof  and 

gallery  at  one  end.  Long  ceremonial  table,  with  raised 
table  on  dais  across  end  where  master  and  distinguished 
guests  sat.  Elaborate  ceremony  of  service. 

b.  Divisions  of  kitchen,  with  pantry,  buttery,  etc. 

3.  Derivation  of  our  words  to-day  from 

a.  Anglo-Saxon  terms,  i.e.,  Lord,  Lady. 

b.  Norman  terms  for  foods,  i.e.,  beef,  veal. 

c.  Monastic  divisions  of  labor,  i.e.,  butler,  steward. 

4.  Sports  and  occupations. 

a.  Hunting.     Wild   deer,   boar,  hare,   etc.,   hunted   and  kept   in 

preserves. 

b.  Hawking.     Sport  of   nobility  in   Norman   England.     Hawks 

used  to  bring  down  small  birds,  used  as  food  and  es- 
teemed as  delicacies. 

c.  Fishing.     Occupation  rather  than  sport;  nobility  seldom  en- 

gaged in  it,  though  sea-food  was  staple  of  diet. 

III.  PICTURE  OF  ENGLISH  IN  CHAUCER'S  DAY. 

1.  Monastic  fare,  Prologue  to  Canterbury  Tales. 

2.  Traveller's  fare,  at  inns. 

3.  Fare  of  gentlefolk,  description  of  Merchant  and  of  Cook. 

4.  Table  manners,  description  of  Prioress.  l 

IV.  APPEARANCE  OF  BOOKS  OF  COOKERY. 

1.  Treatise  on  Cookery,  1375,  by  Guillerant,  cook  to  Charles  V. 

2.  Forme  of  Cury,  1390,  in  England,  by  cook  to  Richard  II. 

3.  De  Honesta  Voluptate  et  Valitudine,  1474,  in  Venice. 

4.  De  Re  Culinaria,  Collius  Apicius,  1498. 

5.  The  Noble  Boke  of  Cookery,  1500,  in  England. 

6.  Boke  of  Kervynge,  Wynkyn  de  Word,  1513,  in  England. 

7.  Kuchenmeistery,   Strassburg,    1516. 

8.  Manual  by  Scappi,  privy  cook  to  Piux  V,  1622. 

9.  Proper  Newe  Boke  of  Cookery,  England,  1570. 
10.  The  Good  Housewife's  Treasury,  England,  1588. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

ABRAMS,  ANNIE English  Life  and  Manners  in  Later  Middle  Ages,  1913 

ABRAMS,  ANNIE Social  England  in  the  15th  Century,  1909 

ARABIAN  NIGHTS'  ENTERTAINMENT 

BABEE'S  BOKE (Training  at  Table)   1868  (Reprint) 

BAEDE Eccleciastical  History,  600 

BALCH,  ELIZABETH Glimpses  of  Old  English  Homes,  1890 


22  TECHNICAL    EDUCATION    BULLETIN 

BEOWULF (J.  H.  Cox,  editor)  1910.    Time  of  poem,  about  500  A.  D. 

BRAND,  JOHN Antiquities,  10.05 

CHAMBERS,  R Book  of  Days,  1888 

CHAUCER,  GEOFFREY Canterbury  Tales,  Prologue,  1386-90 

CoMPTON-RiCKETT,  ARTHUR London  Life  of  Yesterday,  1909 

COULTON,  G.  G A  Medieval  Garner.  1910 

CUTTS,  E.  L Scenes  and  Characters  of  the  Middle  Ages,  1872 

CUTTS,  E.  L Domestic  Life  in  England,   1835 

EVANS,  H-.  E High  History  of  the  Holy  Grail,  1908 

FREYTAG,  G Pictures  of  German  Life,  1862 

FRERE,  FANNY A  Proper  Newe  Booke  of  Cookery  (reprint),  1913 

GODFREY,  ELIZABETH English  Children  in  the  Olden  Time,  1907 

GOSSON,  STEPHEN Schoole  of  Abuse,  1579 

GREEN,  MRS.  A.  STOPPFORD Town  Life  in  the  isth  Century,  1894 

GUEST,  GEORGE Mabinogion  (Time  of  story,  about  800),  1907 

GUEST,  GEORGE Social  History  of  England,  1913 

GUMMERE,  F.  B Old  English  Ballads,  1903 

GUMMERE,  F.  B Germanic  Origins,  1892 

HACKWOOD,   FRED.,   Inns,   Ales,   and   Drinking   Customs   of    Old    England 

(no  date) 

HAKLUYT Voyages,   1598-1600 

HARRISON,  WM England,   1577 

HEATH,  SIDNEY Pilgrim  Life  in  the  Middle  Ages,  1912 

Author  unknown Land  of  Cockayne  (Satire  on  Clergy),  dr.  noo 

MALORY,  THOMAS Morte  d'  Arthur,  1485 

MARKHAM,  GERVASE English  Housewife,  1617 

MARCO  POLO Travels,  1116 

MASKELL,  H.  P Old  Country  Inns  of  England  (no  date) 

MORTON,  J Ancren  Riwle,  1225   (modernized) 

McGovERN,  J.,  Hospitality,  Mine  Host  from  the  Time  of  Babylon  to  the 

Age  of  the  Aeroplane 

NEEDHAM,  MARY Folk  Festivals,   1912 

PLUMMER,  C Life  and  Times  of  Alfred  the  Great 

PRIVY  PURSE  ACCOUNTS  of  Elizabeth  of  York,  1502-3 
PRIVY  PURSE  ACCOUNTS  of  Princess  Mary,  1536-1544 

SALZMAN,  L.  F Medieval  Byways,  1913 

SCOTT,  WALTER Ivanhoe,  1825  ;  Quentin  Durward,  1823 

SKEAT,  WM.  M The  Past  at  Our  Doors,  1911 

STUBBES,  PHILLIPE Anatomic  of  Abuse,  1583 

SYNGE,  M.  B Short  History  of  Social  Life  in  England,  1906 

TACITUS Germania,  A.  D.  99 

THRUPP,  JOHN Anglo-Saxon  Homes,  from  5th  to  nth  Centuries,  1862 

TRAILL,  H.  D Social  England,  1901-4 

WALMESLEY,  J.,  Expenses  of  Judge  of  Assizes,  1596-1601.     (Cooper  Ed., 

1858) 

WALSH,  WM.  S Curiosities  of  Popular  Customs,  1897 

WARNER,  C.  D The  People  for  whom  Shakespeare  Wrote,  1897 

WESTON,  J.  L Sir  Gawain  (modernized) 

WRIGHT,  J.  C In  the  Good  Old  Times,  1905 


AN  OUTLINE  ON  THE  HISTORY  OF  COOKERY 


DATES  IN  MODERN  HISTORY 


EUROPE 

1559     Katharine  de 

Medici   in    France 


1588     Defeat   of  Armada 
Break    of    Spain's 
dominion 

1572-1609     Rise  of 

Dutch  Republic 

1618-1648     Thirty    Years' 
War 

1661-1715     Louis  XIV  of 
France 


1682-1725     Peter  the 
Great  of  Russia 


1740-1786     Frederick  the 
Great  of  Prussia 

1 789     French    Revolution 
1794     Reign  of  Terror 

1795-1815     Napoleon  I 


1848     Napoleon  III 
1853-56     Crimean   War 

1870-71     Franco-Prussian 
War 

1870  Unification  of  Italy 

1871  Unification    of 
Germany 


ENGLAND 

1536-39     Henry   VIII 
confiscated 
monastic  lands 

1558-1603     Reign   of 
Elizabeth 

1564-1616     Shakespeare 


1649     Beheading  of 
Charles   I 

1649-1660     Common- 
wealth   and    Crom- 
well 

1660-85     Charles  II 
1702-14     Queen  Anne 

1714     House  of  Hanover 
on  English  throne 

1757     English  in  India 


1837-1901     Reign   of 
Victoria 

1 839-42     English    in 
China 


AMERICA 

1519-36     Conquests  of 

Mexico    and    Peru 


1607     Jamestown  Colony 
1619     Plymouth  Colony 


1755     French  and  Indian 
War 

1776-83     American 
Revolution 

1789     Adoption  of 
American 
Constitution 

1845-48     Mexican  War 


1860-65     Civil   War 


1898     Spanish- American 
War 


24  TECHNICAL    EDUCATION    BULLETIN 

MODERN  TIMES:  1500  to  Present  Day 

I.     Period  opens  with  strong  interest  in 

1.  VOYAGES  AND  DISCOVERIES. 

a.  To  New  World,  bringing  back  maize,  squash,  tobacco,  potato, 

chocolate  (from  Mexico),  turkey. 

b.  To  Indies  and  Eastern  lands,  bringing  back  coffee,  tea,  cucum- 

ber. 

c.  Popularizing  rarer  vegetables,  cabbage  from  Holland,  etc. 

2.  COLONIZATION. 

a.  England  in  America,  Indies,   India,  China,  Africa. 

b.  France  in  America. 

c.  Spain  in  North  America  and  South  America. 

d.  Holland  in  America  and  Africa. 

3.  SCIENCE. 

a.  Gardening   and    horticulture;    grafting,    propagating,    experi- 

menting, carried  to  high  stage  of  perfection.     Hop-grow- 
ing introduced  into  England. 

b.  Cattle  raising  and  breeding;  cattle  successfully  fattened  for 

market  as  had  never  before  been  done;  scientific  interest 
in  improving  breeds. 

c.  Interest  in  preserving  food.     Sir  Francis  Bacon's  experiment 

with  cold  storage  for  fowl. 

4.  CLASS  CONSCIOUSNESS. 

a.  Rise   of   merchant   class    to    position   of    social    importance; 

demands  on  their  part  for  best  in  market;  rival  nobility 
in  display  and  luxury. 

b.  Revolt  of  poor  people  against  coarse  fare,  demand  for  more 

adequate  wages,  more  liberal  food-supply. 

c.  Great    wealth    pouring    into    Europe    changes    conditions    of 

living  of  all  classes. 

II.     CONTAST  BETWEEN  FARE  OF  UPPER  AND  LOWER  CLASSES  great  cause  of 
discontent. 

1.  Magnificence  of  courts  of 

a.  Catherine  de  Medici. 

b.  Louis  XIV. 

c.  Elizabeth. 

d.  Peter  the  Great  and  Katherine  of  Russia. 

e.  Frederick  the  Great  of  Prussia. 

2.  Culmination  in 

a.  French  Revolution. 

b.  English  Reforms  of  1832. 


AN  OUTLINE  ON  THE  HISTORY  OF  COOKERY  25 

FRANCE 

I.     FAMOUS  MONARCHS  WHO  INFLUENCED  FRENCH  COOKERY. 
T.     Catherine  de  Medici. 

a.  Brought  Italian  elegance  of  food-preparation. 

b.  Set  standard  of  magnificence. 

2.  Louis  XIV. 

a.  Chefs. 

b.  Favorites. 

c.  Taste  in  dishes. 

3.  Marie  Antoinette  and  French  Revolution. 

4.  Napoleon,  contrast  between 

a.  Soldierly  fare. 

b.  Imperial  court. 

II.    NATIONAL  CHARACTERISTICS. 

1.  Love  of  excellence  in  quality. 

2.  Sauces. 

3.  Delicacy  of  flavor. 

4.  Right  proportioning  of  foods  served  together. 

III.  FAMOUS  CHEFS. 

Bechamel,  Vatel,  Vincent  dela  Chapelle,  Robert,  Mest,  Very,  Riche, 
Hardy,  Careme,  Ude,  Francatelli,  Soyer. 

IV.  DEVELOPMENT  OF  RESTAURANTS 

ENGLAND 

I.     ELIZABETHAN  TIMES. 

a.  Passion  for  new  things,  aping  of  foreigners. 

b.  Prosperity    made    for    magnificence    among    nobles,    plenty 

among  commons. 

c.  Scientific  interest  in   food  products  and  in  distilling,  horti- 

culture, etc. 

II.     COMMONWEALTH. 

a.  Time  of  repression ;  excess  of  every  kind  forbidden. 

b.  Political  turmoil,  civil  war,  turned  men's  minds  from  all  soft 

living  and  luxury. 

c.  Religious  severity  did  away  with  observance  of  feast  days. 

III.  RESTORATION  AND  AGE  OF  QUEEN  ANNE. 

a.  French  influence  felt  strongly  at  court. 

b.  Steady  commerce  with  colonies  made  new  products  staple  in 

diet. 

c.  Scientific  agriculture  increased  production  of  food  stuffs  enor- 

mously. 

IV.  PRESENT  TIME. 

a.  Reform  bills  of  1832  lowered  food  prices. 

b.  Tendencies  noted  in  III  continue  to  operate  more  strongly, 

especially  importation  and  productivity. 


26  TECHNICAL    EDUCATION    BULLETIN 

AMERICA 

I.     COLONIAL  COOKERY. 

a.  Marked  by  frugality  and  simplicity. 

b.  New  food  products,  maize  especially,  staple. 

c.  Little  imported  save  wine  and  condiments. 

d.  Effect  of  mingling  of  various  national  stocks  seen  in  cookery, 

i.e.,  New  England  and  Dutch  of  New  York. 

II.     REVOLUTIONARY  COOKERY. 

a.  Provision  liberal,  but  without  European  refinement. 

b.  Vigorous  outdoor  life  of  times  called  for  heavy  diet;  meat 

large  part. 

c.  Contrast : 

1.  New  England 

2.  Virginia  and  Maryland 

3.  Frontier,  Kentucky,  e{c. 

III.     PRESENT  DAY  INFLUENCES. 

1.  Wars  and  conquests. 

2.  Commerce  and  intercourse. 

3.  Developing  of  vast  natural  resources. 

4.  Immigration. 

5.  Scientific  advances. 

a.  Cooking  schools. 

b.  Literature  of  cookery. 

c.  Production  of  better  varieties  of  foods. 

d.  Preservation  of  foods,  cold  storage,  transportation,  etc. 

6.  Famous  hotels  and  restaurants. 

CHINA 

A  vast  country,  shut  off  from  rest  of  civilization  both  by  natural 
barriers  and  by  temper  of  people  themselves.  Its  civilization  goes  back  to 
3000  B.  c.  In  itself  and  apparently  independent  of  any  surrounding  civil- 
ization, China  passes  through  all  the  stages  outlined  from  simple  brute 
existence  to  the  most  complex  social  organization  and  development.  It 
had,  however,  almost  no  influence  on  other  peoples,  because  of  its  isolation. 
Therefore  its  food  customs  are  considered  with  those  of  modern  times, 
for  it  is  only  in  our  own  day  that  they  have  become  familiar. 

FOOD  PRODUCTS. 

1.  Animal.     Fish  of  all  kinds,  shellfish,  sea-snails,  eels,  shark-fins, 

sea  slugs.  Beef  not  used  as  food,  mutton  esteemed,  pork 
used  freely,  deer  and  antelope  used.  Fowl  or  game  birds 
regarded  as  delicacy.  Dogs,  rats,  moles,  used  for  food. 
Eggs  staple  of  diet. 

2.  Vegetables.     Many  varieties  of  grain,  rice  staple  article  of  diet, 

celery,  bamboo  shoots;  nuts,  fruits,  oranges,  etc.,  fir  cones. 


AN  OUTLINE  ON  THE  HISTORY  OF  COOKERY  2/ 

3.  Beverages.     Wine,    distilled    liquor    from    rice,    tea ;    Chinese   an 

abstemious  race,  drunkenness  a  disgrace. 

4.  Two  meals  per  day,  luncheon  and  dinner.    Women  never  present 

at  formal  dinner.  Service  always  of  four  (or  multiple  of 
four)  covers.  No  knives,  forks,  or  spoons  used.  Chop-sticks 
of  ebony  or  ivory  instead.  All  food  served  in  small  portions 
so  that  cutting  is  unnecessary.  Ceremonial  elaborate. 

INDIA 

Food  habits  comparatively  unknown  till  modern  times,  though  civil- 
ization as  ancient  as  Persia.  Climate  ranges  from  tropical  to  temperate. 
No  distinct  botanical  features.  Much  game  of  all  kinds.  Agriculture  sole 
industry  of  the  people.  Largely  vegetarians,  cookery  very  simple.  Had 
little  influence  on  ancient  world,  more  on  England  in  igth  century. 

CHARACTERISTIC  DISHES 

I.     GERMANY  noted  for 

1.  Sausage. 

2.  Sauerkraut- 

3.  Breads  and  cakes  of  all  kinds. 

4.  Wines  and  beer. 

II.     NORWAY  AND  SWEDEN. 

1.  Plain,  simple  foods. 

2.  Fish,  especially  preserved  by  smoking. 

3.  Great  variety  of  fancy  breads. 

III.  SPAIN. 

1.  Olla  podrida. 

2.  Peppers  in  cookery. 

3.  Wines. 

4.  Choice  fruits. 

IV.  ITALY. 

1.  Oil  in  cookery. 

2.  Cheese. 

3.  Wines. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

GENERAL  REFERENCES 

ADDISON Sir  Roger  de  Coverly,  in  Spectator,  1714 

ANDREWS,  WM Bygone  England,   1892 

ASHTON,  JOHN Dawn  of  igth  century  in  England,  1886 

ASHTON,  JOHN .Social  Life  in  the  Reign  of  Queen  Anne,  1897 

BESANT,  WALTER London,  1903-1909 

BLACKMORE,  R.  S Lorna  Doone,  1869 


28  TECHNICAL    EDUCATION    BULLETIN 

BOAS,  MRS.  FREDERICK In  Shakespeare's  England,  1904 

BOSWELL,  JAMES Life  of  Samuel  Johnson,  1791 

BRADLEY,  ROSA  M., 

The  English  Housewife  in  I7th  and  i8th  centuries,  1912 

CARLYLE,  THOMAS The  French  Revolution,  1837 

CERVANTES Don  Quixote,   1605-1615 

CHENEY,  E.  P., 

Introduction  to  Industrial  and  Social  History  of  England,  1901 
CHRONICLES  OF  AN  OLD  CAMPAIGNER 
COURT  OF  THE  TUILLERIES 

DEFOE.  DANIEL Journal  of  the  Plague  Year,  1719 

DICKENS,  CHAS David  Copperfield,  1850 

DICKENS,  CHAS Our  Mutual  Friend,  1865 

DICKENS,  CHAS Martin  Chuzzlewit,  1844 

DICKENS,  CHAS., 

Christmas  Carol,  1843;  Cricket  on  the  Hearth,  The  Chimes,  1844 

DICKENS,  CHAS Tale  of  Two  Cities,  1859 

DEAKE Shakespeare  and  His  Times 

DUMAS,  A Culinary  Dictionary 

EARLE,  ALICE  MORSE Customs  and  Fashions  in  Old  New  England,  1894 

EVELYN,  JOHN Diary,  1641-1697 

FISKE,  JOHN Dutch  and  Quaker  Colonies  of  America,  1899 

GAY,  JOHN Trivia,    1716 

HALL,  HUBERT Society  in  the  Elizabethan  Age,  1886 

IRVING,  WASHINGTON Knickerbocker  History  of  New  York,  1809 

IRVING,  WASHINGTON Sketch  Book,  1818 

LAMB,  CHARLES Essay  on  Roast  Pig,  1822 

LANG,  ANDREW Social  England 

NEWNHAM-DAVIS A  Gourmet's  Guide  to  Paris 

PAYNE Voyages  of  English  Seamen 

PEPYS,  SAMUEL Diary,  1660-1669 

PRIOR Poems,    1687 

POPE,  ALEXANDER Poems,  1709-1737 

ROBINSON,  H.  P Twentieth  Century  America 

RYE.  .England  as  Seen  by  Foreigners  in  the  Days  of  Elizabeth  and  James  I 

SCOTT,  WALTER , Waverly,   1814 

SHELLEY Inns  and  Taverns  of  Old  London,  1909 

SIDNEY,  W.  C, 

Social  Life  in  England  from  the  Restoration  to  the  Revolution 

SMOLLETT,  TOBIAS Peregrine  Pickle,   1751 

STEPHENSON,  H.  J The  Elizabethan  People,  1910 

THACKERAY,  W.  M Some  Dinners  in  Paris,  1860 

THACKERAY,W.  M Poems 

WALTON,  ISAAC Compleat  Angler,  1653 


AUSTIN,  THOMAS Two  I5th  Century  Cookery  Books,  1888 

HAZLITT,  W.  CAREW Old  Cookery  Books,  1902 


AN  OUTLINE  ON  THE  HISTORY  OF  COOKERY  2Q 

HOOKER,  MARGARET  H., 

Ye  Gentlewoman's  Housewifery,  compiled  from  Old  Sources,  1912 
OXFORD,  A.  W., 

Notes  from  a  Collector's  Catalog,  with  a  Bibliography  of  English 

Cookery  Books,  1909 
SENN,  H.  C Ye  Art  of  Cookery  in  Ye  Olden  Time  (no  date) 

OLD  COOKERY  BOOKS 

ACCUM,  FRED Culinary  Chemistry,  1821 

ACTON,  ELIZABETH English  Bread  Book,  1857 

ADAM'S  LUXURY  AND  EVE'S  COOKERY,  1774 
ARTACHTHOS  OR  THE  ASSIZE  OR  WEIGHT  OF  BREAD,  1638 

AUSTIN,  THOMAS Two  I5th  Century  Cookery  Books,  1888 

Book  of  Cookrye by  J.  W.,  1591 

Book  of  Receipts  for  Pastry  Cookery  and  Pickling,  1680 

BRIGGS,  RICHARD English  Art  of  Cookery,  1794 

BRIGGS,  RICHARD New  Art  of  Cookery,  1798 

BUTLER,  CAROLINE London  and  Country  Cook,  cir.  1800 

CARTER,  CHARLES Compleat  City  and  Country  Cook,  1730 

CARTER,  CHARLES London  and  Country  Cook,  1739 

CARTER,  CHARLES Noble  Art  and  Mystery  of  Cookery,  1729 

CARTER,  SUSANNAH The  Frugal  Housewife,  1796 

CLERMONT,  B The  Professed  Cook,  1776 

COLLINGWOOD  and  WOOLAMS Universal  Cook,  1792 

Compleat  Cook,  1655 

Complete  Family  Piece,  1737 

Complete  British  Housewife,  1730 

Cookery  Reformed  or  the  Lady's  Assistant,  1755 

COOK,  ANN The  Professed  Cook,  1750 

Cook's  Vade  Mecum,  1705 

DIGBY,  SIR  KENELM Cookery,  1669 

EVELYN,  JOHN Discourse  on  Thirty-Five  Sallets,  1699 

FARLEY,  JOHN London  Art  of  Cookery,  1789 

FRAZER,  MRS Practice  of  Cookery,  Pastry  and  Confectionery,  1804 

Gastronomy,  1822 

GLASSE,  MRS.  HANNAH Art  of  Cookery,  1746 

GLASSE,  MRS.  HANNAH Complete  Confectioner,  1800 

GRAHAME,  W The  Art  of  Making  Wines,  1783 

HALL,  T The  Queen's  Royal  Cookery,  1713 

HAZLEMORE,  M Domestic  Economy,  1794 

HENDERSON,  W.  A Housekeeper's  Instructor,  1809 

HUNTER,  A Culina  Famulatrix  Medicinae,  1806 

KETTILBY,  MARY Receipts  in  Cookery,  1724 

KING,  W The  Art  of  Cookery,  1709 

KITCHENER,  W The  Cook's  Oracle,  1821 

KITCHENER,  W The  Housekeepers'  Oracle,  1829 

Liber  Cure  Cocarum 


32  TECHNICAL    EDUCATION    BULLETIN 

EARLE,  ALICE  MORSE Stage  Coach  and  Tavern  Days,  1901 

ESCOFFIER,  A Guide  to  Modern  Cookery,  1007 

Experienced  American  Housekeeper,  1823 

FELLOWES Culinary   Handbook,    1904 

FIELD,  EDWARD The  Colonial  Tavern,  1897 

GARRETT Encyclopedia  of  Cookery 

GOUFFE,  J Book  of  Preserves,  1871 

GouFfE,  j Royal  Cookery  Book,  1888 

GRAHAM,  S On  Bread,  1837 

HARLAND,  MARION Some  Colonial  Homesteads,  1897 

LESLIE,  ELIZA Complete  Cookery,  1841 

LESLIE,  ELIZA More    Receipts,    1852 

Pocumtuc  Housewife Reprint  Deerfield,  Mass.,   1907 

RANDOLPH,  MARY Virginia   Housewife,   1838 

RUNDELL,  M.  E American  Domestic  Cookery,  1823 

SALA,  G.  A The  Thorough  Good  Cook,  1896 

SINGLETON,  ESTHER Social  New  York  Under  the  Georges,  1002 

SMITH,  J.  H Famous  Old  Recipes,  1908 

SMITH,  PRUDENCE Modern  American  Cookery,  1831 

SOYER,  A Culinary  Campaign,  1857 

SOYER,  A Gastronomic  Regeneration,  1846 

Statesmen's  Dishes,  1887 

WATERS,  T.  F.  .Ipswich  in  the  Massachusetts  Bay  Colony  (1633-1700),  1905 

WEBSTER,  A.  L The  Improved  Housewife,  1856 


AN  OUTLINE  ON  THE  HISTORY  OF  COOKERY  33 

CHRISTMAS 

In  the  celebration  of  the  Christmas  festival  on  the  25th  of  December, 
Christian  nations  are  in  reality  perpetuating  the  older  pagan  feasts  which 
marked  the  period  of  the  winter  solstice,  the  time  when  the  sun  begins  his 
upward  climb  in  the  heavens,  the  return  to  light  and  warmth.  From 
earliest  times  this  has  been  the  occasion  of  revelry,  feasting  and  rejoicing 
among  all  peoples.  Among  the  Phoenicians  it  was  the  feast  of  Baal,  or 
Bel,  the  Sun  God ;  among  the  Romans,  the  feast  of  Saturn,  or  Saturnalia, 
and  it  is  from  the  customs  of  this  celebration  that  the  masking,  mumming, 
or  pantomime,  so  characteristic  a  part  of  the  Christmas  festivities  in  the 
Old  World,  is  derived.  Among  our  Teutonic  ancestors,  it  was  the  Feast 
of  Odin,  and  our  name  of  Yule-tide,  and  the  ceremonial  of  the  Yule-log, 
are  reminders  of  these  older  forms  of  Druid  worship,  to  mark  the  turn 
of  the  year,  or  the  "wheeling"  of  the  sun  in  the  heavens.  The  canny  fathers 
of  the  church  endeavored,  in  so  far  as  was  possible,  to  make  the  high-days 
and  holy-days  of  the  Christian  calendar  coincide  with  the  periods  of 
traditional  celebration  among  the  people,  thus  making  a  painless  transition. 
And  in  their  successful  carrying  out  of  this  policy,  hosts  of  customs  in  no 
way  connected  with  the  Christian  character  of  the  celebration  were  trans- 
ferred bodily.  Thus  mince-pie,  a  characteristic  Christmas  dish,  is  the 
lineal  descendant  of  the  old  Teutonic  "blood-pudding"  or  sausage,  which 
differed  from  common  sausage  by  being  sweetened  and  having  plums 
mixed  with  it.  Not  until  a  comparatively  late  date  was  it  baked  in  a 
crust;  and  indeed  plum-pudding  and  mince  pie  are  first  cousins,  both 
springing  from  this  famous  dish.  We  may  include  here,  too,  the  old 
plum-porridge,  or  pottage,  with  which  the  Christmas  feast  always  opened, 
for  it  belongs  with  the  other  two  in  point  of  derivation. 

In  England,  the  main  dish  of  the  Christmas  feast  was  the  boar's  head. 
It  was  prepared  by  pickling,  then  roasted,  and  served  on  a  platter  of  gold 
or  silver,  its  tusks  gilded,  a  roast  apple  in  its  mouth,  sprigs  of  rosemary 
and  bay  to  deck  it,  and  the  inevitable  mustard  to  season  it.  So  important 
was  its  place  in  the  feast  that  its  entrance  was  preceded  by  heralds  or 
trumpeters,  and  it  was  borne  in,  held  aloft  by  the  chief  steward  himself. 
None  meaner  in  degree  than  a  knight  might  carve  it.  The  old  Oxford 
carol, 

"Caput  apri  defero," 
was  sung  as  it  was  borne  around  the  board. 

Another  dish  in  high  favor  for  this  feast  was  the  peacock.  One  can 
only  account  for  the  esteem  in  which  this  bird  was  held  by  the  fact  of  its 
rarity  and  beauty,  for  even  after  all  the  elaborate  preparation  and  the 
lavish  use  of  good  materials  to  make  it  palatable  (one  old  recipe  calls  for 
the  flesh  of  three  wethers,  tender  and  good,  to  make  the  gravy  for  a 
single  bird),  the  meat  was  dry,  stringy,  and  tasteless.  The  bird  was  first 
carefully  skinned,  then  stuffed  with  minced  flesh,  savory  herbs,  and  a 
dressing  of  yolks  of  eggs,  then  roasted  and  dressed  with  the  before- 
mentioned  gravy.  The  skin  with  the  plumage  was  then  sewn  in  place, 
the  tail  spread  to  display  its  full  beauty,  the  beak  gilded,  and  a  bit  of 


34  TECHNICAL    EDUCATION    BULLETIN 

cotton  soaked  in  brandy  inserted  therein.  It  was  borne  to  the  table  with 
this  ablaze,  and  only  the  ladies  might  bring  it  in,  or  carve  it  and  serve  it. 
Sometimes  it  was  baked  in  a  pie,  and  then  in  serving,  the  head  protruded 
from  one  end,  the  full-spread  tail  from  the  other.  An  oath  taken  upon  this 
pie  was  peculiarly  sacred,  and  knights  swore  upon  it  their  devotion  to  the 
lady  of  their  choice.  Hence  comes  the  old  expression  "by  cock  and  pie." 
Swans  were  sometimes  given  the  place  of  honor  when  peacock  could  not 
be  obtained,  and  brawn  and  sirloin  of  beef  were  other  Christmas  favorites. 
In  France  and  Spain  as  well  as  in  England,  the  oyster  occupies  a  promi- 
nent place  at  the  feast,  and  a  gift  of  a  barrel  of  oysters  is  a  delicate 
attention  from  one  friend  to  another.  While  we  find  frequent  mention 
of  venison-pasties,  this  is  not  a  distinctively  Christmas  dish  in  any 
country. 

The  Christmas  cake  is  an  institution  in  every  land.  It  is  of  the 
richest  composition  the  means  of  the  household  can  afford ;  old  tradition 
says  it  should  be  baked  a  month  before  it  is  to  be  eaten,  and  dipped  in 
spiced  ale  or  brandy  every  day  for  a  fortnight.  It  usually  contains  fruits 
and  nuts,  and  in  the  old  days  was  sometimes  so  huge  as  to  be  baked  in 
sections,  as  a  single  oven  could  not  accommodate  it.  It  was  iced  and 
built  up  with  sugar  devices,  much  as  bride-cakes  sometimes  are.  Some- 
times it  was  called  Twelfth-cake,  and  then  in  the  baking,  a  bean,  a  pea, 
and  a  clove  were  put  in  it.  When  it  was  cut,  the  person  to  whose  portion 
the  bean  fell  was  king,  she  who  had  the  pea  was  queen,  and  the  clove 
designated  the  knave.  These  dignitaries  were  installed  with  revelry,  and 
ruled  till  Twelfth  Night,  being  absolute  in  all  commands  for  their  little 
reigns. 

The  wassail-bowl  was  another  famous  Christmas  institution.  The 
derivation  of  the  word  signifies  a  health,  and  in  the  older  days;  before 
wines  were  common  and  easily  obtainable,  it  was  composed  of  spiced  ale, 
with  roasted  apples  bobbing  in  it.  In  later  days,  mulled  wine  was  its  basis. 
It  was  passed  round  the  board,  hot  and  spicy,  and  each  took  a  deep  draft 
from  the  common  cup.  It  is  not  until  the  sixteenth  century  that  we  find 
individual  cups  used  for  this  drink,  for  the  ceremony  of  partaking  of  it 
was  in  itself  of  a  certain  democratic  significance. 

Frumenty,  a  dish  of  wheat  cakes  seethed  in  milk,  with  pounded 
almonds,  was  a  great  standby,  served  sometimes  with  venison,  sometimes 
as  a  dish  by  itself.  Geese,  capon,  pheasant,  and  carp-tongue  pie  are  all 
mentioned  as  Christmas  dishes.  Hares,  venison,  a  fine  piece  of  brawn, 
were  all  customary  Christmas  gifts  from  one  householder  to  another. 
Originally  such  gifts  were  made  on  New  Year's  Day,  and  this  is  still  the 
custom  in  some  continental  countries.  New  Year's  day  marked  the 
height  of  the  Roman  Saturnalia,  and  this  is  but  another  relic  from  that 
time. 

Certain  games  and  folk-customs,  which  with  us  are  associated  with 
Hallowe'en,  really  belong  to  the  Yule  celebration.  Among  these  are 
bobbing  for  apples,  and  jumping  for  the  cake.  This  last  was  a  rude  sport, 
where  a  cake,  daubed  with  treacle,  was  suspended  by  a  string  from  a 


AN  OUTLINE  ON  THE  HISTORY  OF  COOKERY  35 

beam  in  the  ceiling,  and  the  contestants,  with  arms  bound  behind  them, 
jumped  and  tried  to  bite  the  cake.  Then  there  was  the  Christmas  Eve 
blessing  of  the  orchards,  where  the  whole  company,  after  partaking  of 
offered  the  remnants  of  the  cake  to  the  largest  apple  tree,  and  sprinkled  the 
ground  with  the  wine,  thus  assuring  abundance  for  the  coming  year. 

On  Christmas  morning  all  the  children  of  the  community  could  go 
from  house  to  house,  asking  for  simnel  cakes,  and  no  one  would  refuse 
them.  Their  elders  made  similar  calls,  but  instead  of  the  simnel  cakes, 
they  were  served  with  "egg-hot,"  a  forerunner  of  our  own  "egg-nogg," 
made  with  cider,  and  with  cakes  of  pounded  almonds,  our  marzipan. 
Everywhere  extravagance  of  provision,  hearty  eating  and  deeper  drinking 
were  the  rule  of  the  day. 

With  the  Period  of  the  Reformation,  and  especially  with  the  rise  of 
the  Puritans  in  England,  all  observation  of  Christmas  and  of  Twelfth- 
night  as  times  of  feast  and  revel  was  not  only  frowned  on,  but  forbidden 
both  by  law  and  by  church  authority.  But  the  love  of  the  festival  was 
too  deeply  implanted  to  be  thus  uprooted,  and  with  the  passing  of  Crom- 
well, we  see  the  old  spirit  breaking  out  again  in  even  wilder  rejoicing. 
Our  own  Puritan  ancestors  came  to  America  while  Christmas  was  in 
eclipse,  and  consequently  New  Englanders  kept  the  day  as  a  fast,  till  their 
Knickerbocker  neighbors  had  corrupted  them.  Much  of  the  character  of 
the  celebration  in  America  to-day  is  borrowed  from  our  German  settlers, 
and  dates  back  only  to  the  middle  of  the  last  century. 

For  excellent  descriptions  of  Christmas  celebrations,  see 

SCOTT Marmion,  1808 

CHAMBERS Book  of  Days,  1888 

HACKWOOD Good  Cheer,  1911 

IRVING Bracebridge  Hall,  1818 

DICKENS Pickwick  Papers,  1837 

DICKENS Christmas  Carol,  1843 

DICKENS Cricket  on  the  Hearth,  1844 

ASHTON,  JOHN A  Righte  Merrie  Christmasse,  1894 

HERVEY,  T.  K Book  of  Christmas,  1888 

SANDYS,  WM Christmas  Tide,  1852 

SCH AUFFLER,  R.  H Christmas,  1907 

SUGGESTED  TOPICS  FOR  CLASS  DEVELOPMENT 

Food  Taboos  in  Primitive  Society. 

Wars  and  Food. 

The  Effect  of  Climate  upon  Diet. 

Religion  and  Food. 

Dinner  Throughout  the  Ages. 

Development  of  Utensils. 

Methods  of  Applying  Heat  to  Food. 

The  Crusades. 

Royal  Tastes. 


36  TECHNICAL    EDUCATION    BULLETIN 

Feasts  in  History. 

Feasts  in  Fiction. 

The  Literature  of  Cookery. 

Folklore  and  Food. 

Table  Customs. 

National  Dishes. 

Famous  Chefs. 

The  Bread  of  All  Nations. 

Cooking  Schools  and  Their  Influence. 

Commerce  and  Food  Habits. 

American  Holidays. 

GENERAL  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

ANDREWS,  JULIA  C Breakfast,  Dinner  and  Tea,  1860, 

BRILLAT-SAVARIN,  J.  A Gastronomy  as  a  Fine  Art.  1813  (pub.  1854) 

BRILLAT-SAVARIN,  J.  A Physiology  of  Taste,  1825  (pub.  1854) 

BUCKLAND,  ANNE Our  Viands,  1893 

CHILD,  THEODORE Delicate  Feasting   (no  date) 

DORAN,  J Table  Traits,   1859 

ELLWANGER,  G.  H Pleasures  of  the  Table,  1902 

Encyclopedia  Britannica 

FILIPPINI,  A \  . . .  .The  Table,  1889 

FINK,  HENRY  T Food  and  Flavor,  1013 

GONLEY,  J.  W.  S Dining  and  Its  Amenities,  1907 

HACKWOOD,  FREDERICK Good  Cheer,  1911 

HAYWOOD,  A The  Art  of  Dining 

HUMELBERGIUS,  SECUNous  DICK Apician  Morsels,  1829 

JEFFERSON,  CORDY Book  About  the  Table 

KETTNER Book  of  the  Table 

KIRWAN,  A.  V Host  and  Guest,  1864 

REYNIERE,  GRIMRODE  DE Almanach  des  Gourmands,  1808 

SHERWOOD,  M.  E.  W The  Art  of  Entertaining 

SOYER,  A.  B Pantropheon    (no   date) 

SOYER,  A.  B Spirit  of  Cookery,  1895 

WALKER,  T Aristology,  or  the  Art  of  Dining 


BARTLETT,  JOHN Familiar  Quotations,  1875-97 

COREY,  E.  L Books  and  My  Food,  1904 

HONE Everyday  Book,  1853  (pub.  1889) 

SMITH,  J.  C Synonyms  and  Antonyms,  1867 


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